'Jia+Qi'+Copper+-+The+Unique+Brown+Copycat+Gem


 * Copper **

"//Men know how to mine silver and refine gold, to dig iron from the earth and melt copper from stone//" The Book of Job 28:1-2

Copper is a transition metal found in Period 4 of the periodic table, with the atomic number 29.
 * Properties:**
 * ** General properties ** ||  ||   ||
 * **Quantum electronic configuration** || [Ar] 3d10 4s1 ||
 * **Atomic number** || 29 ||
 * **Density** || 8.94gcm-3 ||  ||
 * **Electronic configuration** || 2.8.18.1 ||||  ||
 * **State at rtp** || Solid ||
 * **Melting point** || 1084.62 0 C ||
 * **Boiling point** || 2562 0 C ||
 * **Thermal conductivity** || (300 K) 401 W m-1 K-1 ||
 * **Specific heat capacity** || (25 0 C) 24.440 J mol-1 K-1 ||
 * **Electrical resistivity** || (20 °C) 16.78 nΩ·m ||
 * **Mohs hardness** || 3.0 ||  ||
 * ** Oxidation states ** ||  ||   ||   ||   ||
 * +1 || Copper (I) ||  ||   ||   ||
 * ** +2 ** || ** Copper (II) ** ||  ||   ||   ||
 * +3 || Copper (III) ||  ||   ||   ||
 * +4 || Copper (IV) ||  ||   ||   ||
 * ** Isotopes ** ||  ||   ||
 * 63Cu and 65Cu || Naturally occurring and stable ||
 * 27 other isotopes || Radioactive and unstable ||  ||

The uniqueness of copper as a non-precious transition metal comes from its position in the periodic table. Because it is in the same family of electronic structures as silver and gold, copper copies their characteristics to a certain extent and ends up being extremely similar. For instance, both copper and gold and silver have **high thermal and electrical conductivities**, and all three are highly **ductile and malleable**. (ductility is the capability to be pulled into long threads or wires - undergoing high tensile stress - without breaking, and malleability is the ease of being shaped into different shapes.) //Dot diagrams of the electronic configurations of copper, gold and silver respectively (from left to right). Rightmost is a picture of copper wire, showing the ductility of the material.//

Note the similarity in the electronic structure in that all have one electron on top of a filled electron shell. This electron is delocalised in metallic bonding to form metallic bonds, which accounts for the high electrical conductivity of all three metals, further exacerbated by the fact that virtually all the valence electrons take part in metallic bonding as a result. Copper has the second highest electrical conductivity among all metals after silver. This lone electron also contributes to the characteristic reddish-brown colour of copper. ( I am not going to explain how as even I do not understand it. Consult someone smarter than me.)

Only three metals have naturally occurring colours other than grey and black on this Earth: copper, osmium (bluish) and gold (yellow).

//This is the copper pendant// || to present-day Egypt || is recorded in Egyptian references when extraction of copper from mines in the Sinai peninsula is described Previously, copper extraction was from isolated discoveries of deposits or from meteorites || Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea and conquer it They named it //aes cyprium// (metal of Cyprus in Latin, later shortened and corrupted to __**cu**__prium, from which __**C****u**__ is derived.
 * History of copper**
 * 9000 BC || Copper believed to be first used ||
 * 8700 BC || Copper pendants made in present-day Iraq
 * 6400 BC || Copper being melted and cast in present-day Turkey ||
 * 5500 BC || Balkans develop copper smelting ||
 * 4500 BC || The melting and casting technology spreads
 * 3800 BC || First systematic extraction of copper
 * 3000 BC || Romans discover large deposits of copper ore on

Copper is produced in the Indus Valley: implements below || also independently || coast of Peru || in Falun opens and will operate for a millennium till exhausted in 1992. Sweden takes advantage of this and makes copper its chief currency and uses it to fund many of its wars || ending American reliance on Chilean copper for its economy ||
 * 2800 BC || Chinese develop copper smelting independently ||
 * 2000 BC || Copper smelting develops in the Andes,
 * 500 BC || Copper objects produced along the northern
 * 11th century || The Swedish mine of Great Copper Mountain
 * 1705 || US' first copper mine in Connecticut opens ||
 * 1732 || US' second copper mine in Pennsylvania opens ||
 * 1844 || US mining around Lake Superior commences,

Copper occurs in its own uncombined form, known as native copper, one of the very few metals to do so as a mineral. It also occurs combined as many carbonates and sulfides on Earth, where it can be extracted using various processes from its ores. The most commonly used ore for industrial production today is chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) which accounts for almost half of all copper production on earth. Copper is found in great abundance in the Earth's crust. 95% of all copper used today has been extracted in the 20th century. Today, major producers of copper are in South America (Chile, Peru) and North America (US), as shown by the graph below. Copper forms an integral part of Chile's economy. //The copper extraction process// is shown in the illustration above. The process essentially involves four major steps, namely concentrating the ore, smelting, refining the products and casting the copper produced. The copper producing areas as of 2005 are shown below right. //A copper production plant// is on the left. Most copper ore is mined from gigantic open pit mines as shown in the photo in the centre, in //Chuquicamata in Chile//. Copper is a highly recyclable metal, and it is estimated that about 80% of copper in use today has been recycled at least once. Copper also forms alloys such as bronze which was used, among other occasions, in the making of 13.76 tonne bell of the Big Ben. Copper (II) Sulphate ||  ||   ||
 * Origin, production and occurrence**
 * Compounds and Oxidation State Properties**
 * = **Oxidation**
 * State** ||= **Ion**
 * Name** ||= **Examples of compounds** ||= **Properties of compounds** ||= **Uses of compounds and applications** ||
 * +1 || Copper (I) || Copper (I) Oxide ||  ||   ||
 * +2 || Copper (II) || Copper (II) Oxide
 * +3 || Copper (III) ||  ||   ||   ||
 * +4 || Copper (IV) ||  ||   ||   ||

//The applications of copper, categorised on left and right// Copper has many applications in the industry such as:
 * Applications**
 * Electrical Applications - Approximately 65% of copper produced is used for electrical applications. Copper has the highest electrical conductivity of any metal, apart from silver, that is industrially affordable and commercially available, leading to applications in power generation and transmission, constituting the chief component of wires ranging from simple house wires to overhead giant power cables, and in electrical equipment, providing circuitry, wiring and contacts for PCs, TVs and mobile phones (REDs) and other related devices.
 * Construction - 25% of all the copper produced is used in buildings - for plumbing, roofing and cladding. Copper is light and durable, thus maintenance-free structures that are long lasting and fully recyclable can be easily produced.
 * Transport - Trains, trams, cars and lorries all need copper for their wiring and transport accounts for 7% of copper usage as a result.
 * Other - The remaining 3% is used for coins, sculptures, musical instruments and cookware. This is due to copper being antimicrobial, slowing down the rate of bacterial growth, and a very good conductor of heat, therefore being suitable for the bottoms of cookware, and corrosion-resistant and rust-resistant (obviously).

__Images__ http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQKvoW9S5ICmnT-y_LUK3CpQwSEkUhUAeDSfwGAZ7Nn84zQXOk3 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/NatCopper.jpg/250px-NatCopper.jpg http://www.flw.com/datatools/periodic/e_model/47.gif http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTixj1GVXOdTq_6gkeW9km5--e1GPI5kMXF_qVCo4KNkY2NoodzMg http://www.madehow.com/images/hpm_0000_0004_0_img0054.jpg http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTjUNP8yL1aInatfqMn-oNDnf0IKd-Exaj6HaxqQF6I6Oc8XPgO http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQhuGldY6tvBMFQlj2cmI2O3UfuyZOomZFHWIfI_woul0di8ql68w http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSYyvJ0NHEpUl2QmzN80Ov-FZCb2Bt3xmo6gvUNASyCV8LtAO5E http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Chuquicamata-002.jpg/220px-Chuquicamata-002.jpg http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSG65cKvfmzeQrphlEkRQi6VYZj0NAhol-qU0kDtpEYbxjdoegq http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRHMMSV9NdqDAWSq3I3wWBoaqGEAiIRr0qQDDabeFJB79OtXbMWrg
 * References**

__Sites__ http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Copper.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper#Physical_properties http://www.copperinfo.co.uk/applications.shtml http://www.copper.org/applications/compounds/other_compounds.html http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/CDA/16plus/sustainability/copper6.html

Oh well...is it too boring?
 * Very important note: This page is still missing some information on compounds and bronze age, among others, which will be uploaded soon. Please do not judge a book by its first edition.**